Mark Corson

By X. Emet. University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire.

More data of this sort might show dierent genomic components changing their population struc- tures relative to each other over dierent temporal and spatial scales purchase 50mg nitrofurantoin with mastercard. Such data could provide insight into the scale-dependent eects of de- mographic nitrofurantoin 50 mg low cost, genetic discount 50mg nitrofurantoin otc, and selective processes. Variant alleles at antigenic loci ap- pear to trace their phylogenetic history back to common ancestors more recent than the putative bottleneck event. This pattern suggests intense natural selection favoring novel diversity at antigenic sites against a background of low genome-wide diversity caused by a recent bottleneck. Alternatively, the antigenic variants could trace their history back to ancestors that predated the bottleneck (Hughes 1992; Hughes and Hughes 1995; Hughes and Verra 2001). This pattern arises when natural selection strongly favors rare variant antigens, holding diverse antigens in the population through the bottleneck that reduced variation in the rest of the genome. Ancient polymorphisms of this sort suggest that natural selection preserves existing variants rather than favors de novo generation of new variants (Ayala 1995; O hUigin et al. If this estimate applies to the var genes aswellas thelocistudied by Volkman et al. Further studies of dierent genomic regions will contribute to understanding the speed of diversication in the var archival library. Many classical genetic models develop the island structure for populations(Wright 1978). However, those general studies of migration, selection, and stochastic perturbation provide little guid- ance for the genetic structure of parasites. Studies for parasites must account for the density and variability of host immune memory, the longevity of infections, the genetic diversity of inocula, and the patterns of genetic mixing between parasites. Rouzine and Con s (1999) study shows how a clear model of population genetic process can lead to predictions about the expected patterns in the data. This suggestshowone could couple process- oriented theory with the problem of statistical inference. Contrasts between these classications pro- vide insight into how natural selection shapes observed patterns of di- versity. These measures summarize the ability of specic antibodies to recog- nize dierent antigenic variants. The reactivities for various antibodies tested against dierent antigenic isolates form a matrix of antigenic or immunological distances between parasite variants. The second section notesthatantigenic variants can also be classied by phylogeny. This classication scheme measures relatedness between variants by distance back in time to a common ancestor. Such distances arise from the patterns of nucleotide or amino acid dierences in ge- nomic sequences. The third section denes possiblerelationsbetween antigenic and phylogenetic classications. Concordance commonly occurs because antigenic distance often increases with time since a common ancestor, reecting the natural tendency for similarity by common descent. A particular pattern of discord between antigenic and phylogenetic clas- sications suggests hypotheses about evolutionary process. Suppose, for example, that phylogenetically divergent parasites are antigenically close at certain epitopes. This suggests asahypothesis that selective pressure by antibodies has favored recurrent evolution of a particular antigenic variant. The fourth section presents aviviruses as an example of concor- dant antigenic and phylogenetic classications. This example compares strains that dier by relatively long phylogenetic distances with anti- genicity measured by averaging reactivity over many dierent epitopes. Particular details of nat- ural selectionwithregardtoeachaminoacid substitution disappear in the averaging over many independent events. The fth section shows a mixture of discordance and concordance between antigenic and phylogenetic classications for inuenza A. Antigenicity and phylogeny bothseparate isolates from pigs into two groups, the classical swine types and avian-like swine types more recently transferred from birds to pigs. Two bird isolates group phylo- genetically with the avian-like swine types, as expected. However, anti- genic measures separate the bird isolates as distinct from the relatively similar classical swine and avian-likeswinegroups. Perhaps host adap- tation inuences antigenicity of some epitopes used in this study. The sixth section suggests that immunological pressure by antibodies drives the short-term phylogenetic divergence of inuenza A. If so, then antigenic classications over the same scale of diversity may match the phylogenetic pattern. Concordance probably depends on the percentage of amino acid substitutions explained by antibody pressure. Shared antigenicity over long phylogenetic distances may arise by stabilizing or convergent selection. Stabilizing selection prevents change in particular amino ac- ids because of their essential contribution to viral tness. Convergent selection causes recurrent evolution of the same antigenic type by re- peatedly favoring that type in dierent times and places. Alternatively, divergent antigenicity over short phylogenetic distances can arise from intense immune pressure. Stabilizing, convergent, and diversifying se- lection can all occur over dierent temporal scales, combining to shape the relations between antigenicity and phylogeny.

Alcohol Pharmaceuticals Daily preventive health measures and the use of routine health screenings are independent predictors Caffeine Psychological of survival in elderly incontinent individuals after Exessive urine production age generic nitrofurantoin 50mg free shipping, health status trusted nitrofurantoin 50mg, and psychosocial factors have been (polyuria or nocturia) controlled for (6) buy 50 mg nitrofurantoin with amex. Stool impaction While epidemiologic studies of mortality in the incontinent have focused on the elderly population, an important consideration is the relative Age-related physical changes within the detrusor overrepresentation in the younger male population itself include more unstable bladder contractions, of individuals with neurogenic bladders due to more residual urine, and less bladder contractility spinal cord injury. Overall, the multifactorial elements of aging, incontinent vs continent younger men is not well including modifed pharmacokinetics and associated documented. Stress incontinence becomes excitatory and inhibitory effects on the bladder, a more common as men age, probably as a result of variety of central neurological diseases can cause surgery for prostate enlargement and prostate cancer. Consistent with larger secular trends, lengths The rate remained low across all geographic regions. Sample does not typically lead to hospital admission, except sizes for the non-whites and those younger than 55 for surgical correction of the condition. Estimates of were too small to produce reliable estimates for those inpatient hospitalizations through the 1990s in the demographic categories. Men 75 to 84 years of age had the Other * * * highest outpatient visit rates, 59 per 100,000 in 1992 Region and 85 per 100,000 in 1995. In 1998 (the most recent year for which Skilled nursing facility * * data are available), the South had the lowest rate of Intermediate care * * inpatient visits, 42 per 100,000. Died * * * * Interestingly, there was an inverse relationship data not available. The difference was greatest in 1995, when the ratio of outpatient visits for African American males was 2. As with inpatient visits, Hispanic men had a markedly higher rate of outpatient visits 179 per 100,000 in 1998, twice 116 117 Urologic Diseases in America Urinary Incontinence in Men Table 8. These differences may follow from care-seeking behavior and perceptions of the health differences in the types of services provided. Further study is According to Medicare data (Table 11), the rates needed to clarify these trends. More detailed examination reveals that there approximately ten times that in men 35 to 44 years is a trend of increasing rates of physician offce visits of age. Physician offce visits by male Medicare benefciaries for urinary incontinence, by patient age and year. Likewise, the rate for men over 65 increased between 1992 and 1995, then Nursing Home Care fell slightly to the 1998 level of 44 per 100,000. Biofeedback affords patients immediate In general, treatment options for incontinence observed information on performance of muscle are based on the type of incontinence rather than the contraction, allowing them to adjust their voiding gender of the patient. In these Bladder training (a systematic approach to areas, where large groups of men have been studied, modifying voiding patterns) and prompted voiding gender-specifc treatment effects are apparent. A recent review of the Cochrane database found The active treatment group fared better in terms of only 6 randomized controlled trials of conservative duration and degree of continence and quality of approaches to management of post-prostatectomy life. In a randomized controlled trial and the authors concluded, Men s symptoms tend by Vahtera et al. Systematic literature reviews concerning pharmacological treatment of urge Urgency Incontinence/Neurogenic Bladder incontinence (20) and overactive bladder syndrome Augmentationcystoplastyisperformedprimarily with anticholinergic drugs (33, 34) reveal signifcant for neurogenic bladder. Although these studies studies of this treatment are male, results are rarely involved male subjects, the men were not analyzed reported by gender (35). Prevention is typically divided into three types of measures: primary (those that prevent onset of a Table 15. Urinary incontinence procedures for males having commercial health insurance in 2000, counta, rateb to prevent prostate cancer would also decrease the Count Rate incidence of male incontinence. The goal of primary prevention for incontinence Total not associated with prostatectomy is to prevent Operation for correction of incontinence 48 4. Some direct postoperative incontinence are relevant to prevention health sector costs, such as the cost of supplies and of the disorder. The vast majority of patients do cancer in at least two randomized controlled trials, not seek medical care; it has been estimated that only neither of which found a beneft (23, 24). Some men use gender-specifc protective men undergoing radical prostatectomy when the undergarments, which are often more costly than procedures were done in high-volume hospitals by female garments, and some choose to use condom 126 127 Urologic Diseases in America Urinary Incontinence in Men drainage or an external device such as a penile Table 17. Second, relatively few individuals with incontinence younger men with spinal cord injury and other receive medical treatment for the condition. As a neurological disorders that can affect the urinary result, even the most rigorous attempts to quantify tract. Most of the increase occurred in the from published studies, recent national surveys, and ambulatory surgery setting, although expenditures employer data. Regression models were this wide discrepancy are not entirely clear, both estimated for annual medical and pharmacy costs per estimates indicate a substantial economic burden person. The regression results were used under age 65, that is, disabled individuals (Table 17). Expenditures for male Medicare benefciaries age 65 and over for treatment of urinary incontinence (in millions of $), (% of total) Year 1992 1995 1998 Total 19. Expenditures of male Medicare benefciaries age 65 and over for treatment of urinary incontinence (in millions of $). Average annual spending and use of outpatient prescription drugs for treatment of urinary incontinence (both male and female), 1996 1998a Number of Rx Total Drug Name Claims Mean Price ($) Expenditures ($) Alpha-blocker Cardura 378,895 43. Including expenditures on prescription drugs with fewer than 30 claims (unweighted) would increase total drug spending by approximately 83%, to $63.

While patterns of care- covered by managed Medicaid plans 50mg nitrofurantoin free shipping, ranging from seeking behavior are often driven by symptoms nitrofurantoin 50 mg low price, $24 in 1994 to $38 in 2000 (Table 14) nitrofurantoin 50mg with amex. The differences resource utilization, management strategies, and costs in payments between commercially insured children are generally dictated by the underlying condition. Table to characterize care-seeking for incontinence by 7 shows that there are roughly 225,000 physician underlying diagnosis. Number of plan members per year with a physician outpatient visit for pediatric urinary incontinence, by underlying condition, counta, rateb 1994 1996 1998 2000 Count Rate Count Rate Count Rate Count Rate Commercially Insured Population Spina bifda-associated 2 0. Underlying condition was assigned to the incontinence visit if a diagnosis code for that condition occurred on a claim for that patient that year. Visits to ambulatory surgery centers for urinary incontinence listed as any diagnosis by children having commercial health insurance, counta, rateb 1994 1996 1998 2000 Count Rate Count Rate Count Rate Count Rate Total 20 * 23 * 57 8. Unfortunately, it is diffcult to obtain reliable epidemiologic data for urinary incontinence in children. Stratifcation by smaller age cohorts might a provide more insight into care-seeking patterns and Table 12. Mean inpatient cost per child (in $) admitted with urinary incontinence listed as primary diagnosis, the natural history of incontinence complaints. In most clinical contexts, wetting in Age this age cohort does not require investigation. Direct costs of 146 147 Urologic Diseases in America Urinary Incontinence in Children Table 13. Payments (in $) by children having commercial health insurance for physician outpatient visits with urinary incontinence listed as primary diagnosis Mean Total Total Amount Total Amount Mean Total Total Amount Total Amount Counta Payments Paid by Plan Paid by Patient Counta Payments Paid by Plan Paid by Patient 1994 1996 Total 1,547 45 35 10 2,245 50 40 10 Age <3 27 38 28 9. Payments (in $) by children having Medicaid for physician outpatient visits with urinary incontinence listed as primary diagnosis Mean Total Total Amount Total Amount Mean Total Total Amount Total Amount Counta Payments Paid by Plan Paid by Patient Counta Payments Paid by Plan Paid by Patient 1994 1996 Total 207 24 24 0 290 36 36 0 Age <3 9 28 28 0 13 30 30 0 3 10 175 24 24 0 238 37 37 0 11 17 23 28 28 0 39 31 31 0 Gender Male 96 24 24 0 136 33 33 0 Female 111 25 25 0 154 38 38 0 1998 2000 Total 238 40 40 0 271 38 38 0 Age <3 3 45 45 0 6 34 34 0 3 10 197 40 40 0 209 37 37 0 11 17 38 41 41 0 56 39 39 0 Gender Male 124 39 39 0 140 36 36 0 Female 114 41 41 0 131 39 39 0 aCounts less than 30 should be interpreted with caution. The available datasets do not allow evaluation of aggregate costs by treatment venue. Urination during An evaluation of indirect costs, including work the frst three years of life. Instruction, timeliness, and medical infuences affecting toilet Urinary incontinence is a common reason for training. Toilet of these complaints in the pediatric age group, habits and continence in children: an opportunity relatively little epidemiologic and health services sampling in search of normal parameters. Standardization and defnitions in lower patterns, this chapter has synthesized data from a urinary tract dysfunction in children. International broad array of sources, but the sparsity of the data has Children s Continence Society. Pyelonephritis condition that occurs in both males and females of all refers to a urinary tract infection involving the kidney. The prevalence and incidence of urinary tract This may be an acute or chronic process. Acute infection is higher in women than in men, which is pyelonephritis is characterized by fever, chills, and likely the result of several clinical factors including fank pain. Patients may also experience nausea and anatomic differences, hormonal effects, and behavior vomiting, depending on the severity of the infection patterns. Chronic pyelonephritis implies pathogenic invasion of the urinary tract, which leads recurrent renal infections and may be associated to an infammatory response of the urothelium. Urethritis refers Bacteriuria refers to the presence of bacteria to an infammation or infection of the urethra. Isolated bacterial urethritis is associated signs and symptoms that result from rare in women. Bacteriuria may be to sexually transmitted organisms, may also cause asymptomatic, particularly in elderly adults. Host factors such incontinence, cystocele, and elevated volumes of post- as changes in normal vaginal fora may also affect the void residual urine. Other common most commonly diagnosed in children, but it may organisms include Enterococcus faecalis, Klebsiella also be identifed in adults. Common examples include tend to occur more often in immunosuppressed urinary calculi and indwelling catheters. Fungal urinary catheters are associated with chronic bacterial infections with Candida spp are the most common colonization, which occurs in almost all patients after nonbacterial infections. The overall modifcations with antibiotic and silver impregnation role of anaerobic urinary infections is controversial; have been developed in an effort to decrease the rate however, anaerobes may be especially dangerous in of infection in patients with indwelling catheters (2). This acidity is critical to Research on the physiology and microbiology permit the growth of Lactobacillus in the normal of urinary tract infections has identifed a number 154 155 Urologic Diseases in America Urinary Tract Infection in Women Table 1. A as pili, fmbriae, and chemical adhesins that increase urinalysis that reveals both bacteriuria and pyuria is their ability to adhere to host tissues. These codes are categorized primarily on the has classically been used as the culture-based basis of the site and type of infection involved. The increased prevalence of drug- 53,067 cases per 100,000 adult women, based on the resistant bacteria has made susceptibility testing National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey particularly important. Self-reported incidence of physician-diagnosed urinary tract infection during the previous 12 months by age and history of urinary tract infection among 2000 United States women participating in a random digit dialing survey. The average standard error for the total incidences in each of the age groups is 2. Urinary tract infections may be associated with The need for urine culture is also an area of debate. It is as frst-line therapy for patients without an allergy generally believed that asymptomatic bacteriuria in to this compound (5). Specifc fuoroquinolones were elderly patients does not need to be treated, although recommended as second-line agents.