Mark Corson

By I. Ayitos. Concord College.

Course book: Audio files to the course book discount hoodia 400 mg without a prescription, oral exam topics and vocabulary minimum lists are available from the website of the Department of Foreign Languages: ilekt purchase hoodia 400 mg on line. Secretion of saliva and gastric juice Exocrine functions of pancreas hoodia 400mg online, liver and 7th week: intestines Lecture: Humoral control of circulation Endothelial functions 11th week: Integrated regulation of circulation Lecture: The liver Pulmonary circulation Absorption of nutrients Cerebral and coronary circulation Food intake and its regulation Energy balance 8th week: Regulation of body temperature Lecture: Splanchnic, cutaneous and muscular Energetics of muscle contraction circulation Circulatory shock 12th week: Regulation of cell function Lecture: Energetics of muscle contraction "My heart" Exercise physiology Regulation of cardiovascular functions in 9th week: physiological and pathological conditions Lecture: Mechanics of respiration Integrated response of the cardiovascular and Compliance, work of breathing respiratory system Gas transport in the blood Measurements of intracellular Ca2+ cc Control of breathing Neural regulation of gastrointestinal functions Requirements 1. Signature of Lecture Book Attendance of lectures, laboratory practices and seminars is compulsory. The signature of the Lecture Book may be refused for the semester in case of more than four absences from the seminars and/or more than two absences from the practices. All missed practices must be must be made up, however this does not reduce the number of absences! Completion of all topic sheets in the Exercise Book, each verified by the signature of the teacher, is also a precondition of the signature of the Lecture Book. Each student must attend seminars with the group specified by the Education Office. For continuous updates on all education-related maters, please check the departmental web-site (http://phys. If one wishes to improve on his/her general performance, it is possible to take a make-up (remedial) test on one of the three topics. Note that the calculation of the average score will be based upon the result of the remedial test, even if it is worse than the original score. At the end of the 2nd semester the 1st semester test results will be used to calculate your bonus points. Laboratory practical knowledge of the students will be tested at the end of the first semester as part of the Closing Lab, evaluation with two level marks (accepted or not accepted). As a precondition of attending the Closing Lab, the fully completed Exercise Book (with all the verified topics) must be presented during the Closing Lab. Students are expected to perform the given experiment on their own and must be familiar with theoretical background also. If the final evaluation of the Closing lab is "Not Accepted", then the student will be given laboratory practical questions on the end-semester examination. If the final evaluation of the Closing lab is "not accepted", then the student will be given laboratory practical questions, too. Gross anatomy of the brain stem and Demonstration of the cerebral hemispheres and its structures. Opening of the vertebral canal on a membranes is followed by surface separate torso. Demonstration: blood portion of the lateral ventricle, then its frontal supply of the brain. Spinal cord Establish the position of the temporal horn with (Golgi impregnation) 4. Remove the intracellular labeling trunk of the corpus callosum, cut and fold back the fornix. Explore the The structure and pathways of the pons and brainstem by removing the remaining parts of the mesencephalon. Follow the Cut out a wedge-shaped part of the cerebellum instructions given at the dissection of the excised for the observation of the 4th ventricle. The basal ganglia and the significance of the central excitatory and cerebellum as part of the somatomotor system. The educational activities of the Neurobiology course include lectures, seminars and practices. Most of the regulations concerning these activities are specific to the individual departments and will be introduced by the respective education officers. In the detailed program of the course (which, in fact, corresponds to the list of requirements) as well as here, both the compulsory and suggested textbooks are listed. Note, however, that the requirements of the course include material delivered in the lecture hall only, not necessarily available in the recommended textbooks, while in other cases some information in the suggested textbook is not regarded as part of the exam material. Attendance of the lectures, seminars and practices is compulsory, although one may have five absences from the lectures and two absences of in the following distribution: neuroanatomy and neurohistology together: two absences; neurophysiology (seminar and practices) two absences together. If one collects six or more lecture absences (regardless of the reason of the absences) all the exam advantages are withdrawn without further notice. In the case of three or more absences from either the practices or seminars, the verification of the lecture book may be refused. Making up the missed seminars and practices may be possible, but the individual departments determine the actual procedure. If one meets the passing conditions (see below), the end-semester examination may be substituted with the result achieved on the basis of these tests (i. All three departments participate, however, in the second (week 10) and third (week 14) self-controls (both of them are written tests). If someone fails to reach the 60 % in the case of any of the subjects of a department then the student must take the examination on the appropriate subject(s) during the examination period (the actual dates will be determined later). The preconditions of the exam exemption: at least 6 points on histology practicum; at least 12 points on neuroanatomy oral/practicum and at least 12 points on the written tests. Four extra points can be collected from neurophysiology practicals on the 14th academic week during the Neurophysiology closing lab. Nevertheless, the maximum achievable neurophysiology score is 40 points and these extra 4 points are valid only and exclusively in the current academic year (students repeating Neurobiology can register for the end-semester neurophysiology closing lab again. Year, Semester: 2nd year/2nd semester Number of teaching hours: Lecture: 45 Seminar: 15 Practical: 30 1st week: Practical: Study on blood clotting Lecture: Levels of eucariotic gene expression. Practical: Fractionation and quantitative 2nd week: determination of plasma proteins. Significance and interrelationship between 6th week: metabolic, cytokine, hormonal and neuronal Lecture: Tumor suppressor genes and their regulation.

The idiopathic form causes ∼20% usually with mild to moderate mesangial proliferation discount 400mg hoodia with amex. Silver stains classically show ‘spikes’ where basement membrane has grown between subepithelial deposits buy generic hoodia 400mg on-line. Alternatively large plasma proteins may leak through the capillary wall order hoodia 400mg overnight delivery, accumulate in the subendothelial space and compress the capillary Prognosis lumen. Some patients develop a rapidly progressive course loss of the function of that nephron. These may develop later in the course of drome in adults and the second most common cause the illness. Incidence/prevalence Causes ∼20% of cases of nephrotic syndrome in adults Macroscopy/microscopy and children. Increase in the mesangial matrix in glomeruli in a focal segmental pattern, with collapse of the adjacent capillary loop. It is thought to be part first, the disease may be missed on renal biopsy (and of a physiological response to glomerular hyperfiltra- hence a diagnosis of minimal change disease made). Steroid resistant cases action to the drug, with lymphocytes and eosinophils may respond to ciclosporin, and steroid-dependent infiltrating the interstitium causing tissue oedema. The cases may benefit from the addition of ciclosporin or tubular epithelium undergoes acute necrosis. High Patients with marked proteinuria, tubular atrophy, in- dose steroids may be given. Chronic renal failure may progress to end-stage renal disease and re- Acute Chronic quire renal replacement therapy. See also Renal Tubu- depletion, polyuria and immunodeficiency secondary lar Acidosis (see below). Water and r Phosphate transport defects: There are several types, anions such as aminoacids follow sodium. Osmotic di- usually X-linked, although occasional sporadic inher- uretics and carbonic anhydrase inhibitors act at this site. Treatment is with oral phosphate supple- condition characterised by glycosuria with normal ments with vitamin D or 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D blood glucose. Thick ascending loop of Henle: Sodium is pumped Glycosuria is a normal response during pregnancy. The most important single defect is cystinuria, an concentration gradient within the medulla of the kid- autosomal recessive condition which predisposes to ney, which draws water out of the collecting duct and urinary stone formation (see page 270). Loop diuretics such as with high fluid intake and alkali ingestion, because the furosemide act from within the lumen of the ascending cystine is more soluble in alkaline conditions. There may be potassium results in high urinary sodium loss, dehydration, Chapter 6: Disorders of the kidney 253 secondary hyperaldosteronism and hypokalaemic dioxide). Even when bicarbonate levels fall to as low This results in a similar syndrome of sodium loss, de- as 10 mmol/L or below, the urine remains relatively hydration and hypercalciuria as Bartter type I; how- alkaline (pH ≥ 5. If untreated, persistent metabolic ever, hypokalaemia only occurs after treatment with acidosis leads to increased mobilisation of calcium sodium supplements. Once 3 collecting duct resulting in a hypokalaemic metabolic plasma bicarbonate levels fall to about 12–16 mmol/L, alkalosis. This The main problems occur due to the loss of other is under the influence of aldosterone which increases substances such as amino acids and phosphate. Spironolactone 2istreated with bicarbonate, thiazide diuretic and and amiloride affect this exchange and hence increase potassium bicarbonate or potassium-sparing diuret- urinary water and sodium loss. Fanconi syndrome is treated with large doses of diuretics, these cause potassium reabsorption and are vitamin D. This results in excessive water loss deficiency causes hyperkalaemia, which is associated in the urine. Hyper- Renal tubular acidosis kalaemia may be life-threatening and the underlying Definition disorder often shortens life expectancy. Under physiologi- Disorders of uric acid metabolism may cause renal dis- cal conditions, the kidneys help to maintain acid–base easeduetoachronicnephropathy,anacutenephropathy balance, together with the lungs (which remove carbon or through the formation of uric acid stones. Renal failure leads to raised uric acid levels Adult polycystic kidney disease is an autosomal dom- and in some cases there may have been another cause inant inherited condition characterised by gradual re- for their renal failure. It is thought that urate crys- placement of renal and occasionally other tissue by cysts. There is a distinct autosomal dominant disorder of uric acid metabolism which is associated with early Age onset renal failure and hypertension. Allopurinol may improve renal function, but M=F rarely completely prevents deterioration. This gene is closely cipitateinthecollectingducts,renalpelvisandureters, related to the tuberous sclerosis gene in which renal cysts causing obstruction. There are very high pressed in the distal tubules, collecting duct and thick uric acid levels and uric acid crystals may be seen on ascending limb of Henle and appears to be involved in urine microscopy unless there is little or no urine pro- calcium signalling. The mechanism of cyst formation is not yet under- r This complication is prevented by pretreatment with stood, although it appears that there may need to be a high doses of allopurinol or rasburicase prior to second somatic mutation, because the disease variably chemotherapy or radiation, and giving intravenous affects tubules and individuals. There is evidence that fluids to lower the concentration of uric acid in the the cysts arise from one progenitor cell (monoclonal). Pathophysiology Cysts develop in both kidneys, progressing in size and Uric acid stones number over the years.

For this reason order hoodia 400mg without prescription, among other applications purchase hoodia 400mg without prescription, they are commonly recommended for the treatment of menopause symptoms [21 buy hoodia 400mg low cost, 23]. Moreover, some consider- ation is given to the possible using isofavones in the prevention and treatment of neoplasms related to the distortion of hormonal balance in the body [16, 17, 22, 24, 25]. Predominantly limited to soy-bean products, the natural sources of isofavones do not permit mass production of substantial amounts of these compounds, not only for the pharmaceutical industry, but also for the compre- hensive pharmacological and toxicological research of the isolated substances Chapter 3 Research into Isofavonoid Phyto-oestrogens in Plant Cell Cultures 57 [26]. Therefore, in recent years, only very few reports dealing with biotechno- logical research indicated the possibility of using in vitro cultures of certain species of the Fabaceae family for large-scale production of phyto-oestrogens [27, 28]. Irrespective of the main goal of a research project, the biosynthesis and metabolism of isofavonoids is stimulated in in vitro cultures by using both traditional as well as more advanced biotechnological strategies [15, 26]. Such procedures as the modifcation of the basic composition of the experimental medium, with a focus on growth regulators [29–33] and the regulation of the growth conditions by controlled lighting and temperature, should be mentioned [30, 34, 35]. The natural enzymatic potential of the investigated biomass is also used to induce broadly understood bioconversion with the use of direct and indirect precursors, in order to obtain the fnal product [36–38]. Based on the fact that isofavones belong to a class of substances that play an active role in defence processes [18, 19], the biosynthesis and metabolism of these compounds in plant cells is regulated using a wide range of biotic and abiotic elicitors [39–43]. Sample tests of isofavone accumulation in various types of in vitro cultures (callus, suspension, roots and shoots) provide prelimi- nary insight into the production potential of the particular types of cultures [27, 28, 31–33, 44]. The metabolism of isofavones was also investigated using transgenic biomasses (suspensions, hairy roots, regenerated organs) obtained through genetic transformation with wild or pre-designed strains of bacteria [31, 45–47], or particle bombardment [48, 49]. The following discussion, based on current literature reports, presents the impact of the particular growth strategies on the biosynthesis and metabolism of isofavones in in vitro plant cultures. These modifcations involve both qualitative and quantitative changes in the macro- and microelements, sources of carbon and growth regulators respon- sible for the particular hormonal balance in the growth system [2, 5, 8, 9, 51]. The composition of these media, especially in terms of growth regulators, was selected to support the micropropagation of the investigated species or to ensure maximum growth of the biomasses [44, 52–56]. For instance, in callus and suspension cultures of the most frequently inves- tigated species of the Fabaceae family, such as Glycine max, Cicer arietinum, Phaseolus vulgaris, Lupinus albus and Medicago sativa, the growth regulators 58 M. Luczkiewicz of choice were most often kinetin and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) [27, 28, 37–39, 41, 42]. It should be noted here that the effect of the particular growth regulators on shoot initiation and elongation was variable and each time was species specifc [44, 55–63]. Only few reported experiments involving in vitro cultures of Fabaceae plants were directly focussed on the infuence of the basic composition of the experi- mental media on the accumulation of isofavones in the plant material [30–34, 55, 64, 65]. The other experiments showed that a signifcant increase in the concentra- tion of the discussed compounds in the biomasses can be achieved by reduc- ing the level of mineral salts in the growth media [64–66]. A reduction of am- monia salts and nitrites in the growth media caused Phaseolus vulgaris shoot cultures to synthesise several times more phaseolin and kievetone than control biomasses [34]. The process was accompanied by a generally increased expres- sion of genes related to the phenylpropanoid pathway and inhibition of cul- ture growth. Similarly, increased nitrogen content in the medium resulted in the concentration of phytoalexins in bean shoots being reduced by even 9 % [34]. An increased concentration of isofavones in in vitro cultures of Phaseolus vulgaris was also achieved when there was a defcit of phosphate, borate and manganese ions in the growth system [65, 66]. The reason for this phenomenon is seen in the so-called “nutrition stress”, although not much is known about its mechanism. In effect, the biochemical pathways are “switched” towards the biosyn- thesis of particular secondary metabolites [34, 67–69]. Research concerning in vitro cultures of legume plants also showed the ef- fect of certain growth regulators on the biosynthesis of isofavones in plant bio- masses [29–33, 38, 70, 71]. It was proved that 2,4-D stimulated the biosynthesis of free and glycosidated biochanin A and formononetin in a Cicer arietinum suspension culture [38, 70]. The aforementioned auxin also induced the pro- duction of daidzein in callus cultures of fve species of Psolarea genus [32] and maackiain and medicarpin in a Medicago sativa suspension culture [71]. The benefcial role played by 2,4-D in the process of isofavone biosynthesis was also noted in callus lines of Maackia amurensis [33]. In the presence of auxin, the discussed cultures synthesised as much as four times more daidzein, genis- tein, formononetin and retuzin than the intact plant. This phenomenon was not observed, however, when the auxin of choice was naphthaleneacetic acid [33]. Chapter 3 Research into Isofavonoid Phyto-oestrogens in Plant Cell Cultures 59 Moreover, experiments involving in vitro cultures of Phaseolus vulgaris [29, 30, 72, 73] showed that growth regulators could selectively regulate the biosyn- thesis and metabolism of certain isofavones. The authors of these reports concluded that the growth regulators used had a selective effect on the metabolism of the investigated phytoalexins by creating more or less advantageous cytological conditions in the analysed biomasses [29, 30]. Due to the specifcity of the experiments, the eventual concentration of kievetone and phaseolin resulted not only from the particular medium modifcation in terms of growth regulators, but also from variable growth conditions [29, 30, 73]. In all of the aforementioned experiments, the role of particular medium components on the biosynthesis of isofavones received only fragmentary treat- ment. Still, these results indicate clearly that media components, and especially the phytohormones, may play an important regulatory role in the biosynthesis of isofavones in in vitro cultures. In case of the latter, a crucial role is played by both the length of the electromagnetic wave and the actual exposition of plant material to daylight [34, 50, 74, 75–77]. Therefore, the access to daylight may have a material regulatory impact on the biosynthesis of phen- ylpropane derivatives, including biofavonoids, such as isofavones [30, 78, 79]. This theory was confrmed by research of suspension cultures of Cicer arieti- num, which synthesised signifcant amounts of biochanin A and formononetin when grown in daylight [38, 74]. On the other hand, exposure to light does not seem necessary to initiate the biosynthesis of isofavones, as indicated by their considerable concentration in the roots of intact plants and in in vitro cultures of legume plants kept in complete darkness [35, 46, 47, 49]. Research involving in vitro cotyledon cultures of Phaseolus vulgaris showed that the lighting conditions may also selectively regulate the biosynthesis of certain isofavones [30]. These bean cultures contained clearly heightened ac- cumulations of kievetone (5-hydroxyfavone) only in cotyledons incubated in complete darkness.